Warplanes in the World: A Comprehensive Review and Comparison

Fighter jets are essential elements of modern militaries and play a key role in a country’s ability to protect its airspace, hit strategic targets, and eliminate enemy air elements. In this field, where technology is advancing at a dizzying speed, each new generation aircraft is equipped with superior capabilities than the previous one. In this comprehensive review, we will consider in detail the evolution of combat aircraft around the world, their generations, prominent models, technological features and comparisons with each other. Our goal is to present this complex and dynamic space with organic and unique content, aiming for around 15,000 words.

1. Introduction: The Evolution and Changing Role of Warplanes

The history of combat aircraft dates back to the First World War. These primitive aircraft, which were initially used for reconnaissance and surveillance, were equipped with machine guns in a short time and assumed the role of fighters. Between the two world wars, and especially during the Second World War, there were revolutionary developments in fighter aircraft technology. The transition from piston engines to jet engines brought about enormous increases in speed, altitude, and maneuverability. The Cold War period saw the birth of sophisticated warplanes equipped with radar and missile technologies that could reach supersonic speeds.

Today, combat aircraft have evolved into multi-role platforms that can be used not only in air-to-air combat, but also in air-to-ground missions, electronic warfare, reconnaissance and surveillance, and even strategic bombing. While the term “fighter aircraft” covers a wide spectrum, it generally refers to jet-powered military aircraft designed to hunt down enemy aircraft (air superiority) and attack ground targets (attack).

The classification of combat aircraft is usually done on the basis of the concept of “generation”. Each generation represents specific technological breakthroughs and operational capabilities. These generations include many differences, from the performance of the aircraft to their avionics systems, from their weapon capabilities to their stealth features.

2. Generations of Fighter Aircraft: Milestones of Technological Development

The classification of fighter aircraft by generation is critical to understanding technological evolution. Each generation is characterized by specific skill sets and design philosophies.

• First Generation Fighter Aircraft (Approximately Late 1940s – Mid-1950s):

  • Main characteristics: This generation, in which the jet engine was used for the first time, could reach speeds close to the speed of sound (subsonic or transonic). They had basic avionics (simple sights, radios) and machine guns or cannons. Missiles were not yet widespread. The aerodynamic designs bore the effects of the transition from piston-engined aircraft to jet engines.
  • Featured Models:
    • Messerschmitt Me 262 (Germany): The world’s first operational jet fighter.
    • Gloster Meteor (United Kingdom): The Allies’ first operational jet fighter.
    • North American F-86 Sabre (USA): He is known for his success against the MiG-15 in the Korean War. It had a winged arrow angle (swept wing) design.
    • Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 (Soviet Union): The F-86 was the Sabre’s main competitor in Korea. It was noted for its high-altitude performance and rate of climb.
  • Comparative Assessment: This generation of aircraft represented the beginning of the jet age. Their main mission was air-to-air combat, and they were often able to operate in daytime conditions. The rivalry between the F-86 and the MiG-15 symbolizes the technological race of this era. The F-86 gained an advantage with better sighting systems and pilot training, while the MiG-15 was able to reach higher altitudes and climb better.

• Second Generation Fighter Aircraft (Circa Mid-1950s – Early 1960s):

  • Main characteristics: The ability to reach supersonic speed (above Mach 1) has become standard. Air-to-air missiles (usually heat-seeking) became among the main weapons. Radar systems have become more advanced, giving them the ability to operate in all weather conditions and at night. The use of afterburner has become widespread. The capacity to carry nuclear weapons was seen in some models.
  • Featured Models:
    • North American F-100 Super Sabre (USA): The world’s first mass-produced supersonic fighter.
    • McDonnell F-101 Voodoo (USA): It was used in long-range interception and reconnaissance missions.
    • Convair F-102 Delta Dagger / F-106 Delta Dart (USA): They were aircraft with a delta wing design, equipped with missiles developed specifically for interception missions. The F-106 had an advanced radar and SAGE (Semi-Automated Ground Environment) data link.
    • Lockheed F-104 Starfighter (USA): Also referred to as a “manned missile”, it was a design focused on high speed and rate of climb. However, it was criticized for its low maneuverability and high accident rate.
    • Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 (Soviet Union): The first mass-produced supersonic fighter of the USSR.
    • Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 (Soviet Union): It is the most produced supersonic fighter in history. It was a simple, inexpensive, durable and high-performance design. It has been used and modernized by many countries for many years.
    • Dassault Mirage III (France): Delta winged, a successful European design. It was used in both fighter and assault roles and was exported to many countries.
    • English Electric Lightning (United Kingdom): It was an interceptor aircraft known for its exceptional rate of climb and supersonic performance.
  • Comparative Assessment: In this generation, speed and altitude were at the forefront. The integration of missiles began to partially change the concept of dogfighting, but the reliability of early missiles was low. The MiG-21 has become widespread in a wide geography thanks to its affordable cost and performance. While the F-104 drew attention with the limitations of its speed-oriented design, the F-106 had one of the most advanced interception systems of the period.

• Third Generation Fighter Aircraft (Circa Early 1960s – 1970s):

  • Main characteristics: There have been significant developments in avionics systems. More powerful and reliable radars (e.g., Doppler radars), advanced navigation systems, and missiles with the first “look-down/shoot-down” capability (e.g., the AIM-7 Sparrow) began to be used. Multi-role aircraft designs (capable of effectively performing both air-to-air and air-to-ground missions) came to the fore. Air-to-ground munitions have diversified (guided bombs, anti-radiation missiles). Mach 2 speeds became standardized.
  • Featured Models:
    • McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II (USA): It is the iconic aircraft of this generation. It was a large, powerful, multi-role platform and was widely used by both the U.S. Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corps. It was exported to many countries and remained in service for many years. The first versions without the cannon were indicative of overconfidence in missile technology, but after the Vietnam experiences, the cannon was integrated.
    • Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 (Soviet Union): It was the first Soviet fighter with swing-wing wings of variable geometry. In this way, optimum performance in different speed regimes was targeted. It had an advanced radar and “look-and-shoot” capability.
    • Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 (Soviet Union): It was a high-altitude interceptor and reconnaissance aircraft capable of reaching speeds of Mach 3. It caused great concern in the West, but later it became clear that it was a pure interceptor aircraft and had limited maneuverability. It stood out for its stainless steel body.
    • Dassault Mirage F1 (France): It was a multi-role fighter with conventional arrow-angled wings, which replaced the Mirage III.
    • Saab 37 Viggen (Sweden): It was a unique Swedish design, notable for its ability to operate from short and crude runways, canard ailerons and advanced avionics. It had a thrust reverser system.
  • Comparative Assessment: The Vietnam War was an important testing ground for this generation of aircraft and their technology. Despite advances in missile technology, close-range dogfights were still important. While the F-4 Phantom II stood out for its power and versatility, the MiG-23 reflected a shift in Soviet design philosophy with its variable geometry wings. The MiG-25, on the other hand, was unique in its pure speed and altitude performance, but these characteristics limited it to a narrower role. Viggen offered innovative solutions for Sweden’s specific defence needs.

• Fourth Generation Fighter Aircraft (Circa 1970s – Early 2000s):

  • Main characteristics: This generation is characterized by high maneuverability (return to dogfights), advanced avionics, pulsed Doppler radars, “fly-by-wire” (FBW) control systems, “Heads-Up Display” (HUD) and multi-function displays (MFD). Multi-role has become the norm. Advanced medium- and long-range missiles (for example, AIM-120 AMRAAM, R-77) and precision-guided air-to-ground munitions have become widespread. Aerodynamic efficiency and thrust-to-weight ratio were important in the designs.
  • Featured Models:
    • McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle (USA): It was designed as a purebred air superiority fighter (“not a pound for air-to-ground”). It was one of the best fighters of its time, with exceptional maneuverability, powerful engines, and radar. It is claimed that he was never lost in any air-to-air combat. The F-15E Strike Eagle gained an advanced air-ground attack capability.
    • General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon (USA): It was developed to complement the F-15 as a lighter, more agile, and more cost-effective fighter. The fly-by-wire system was a pilot-friendly design with a bubble canopy (excellent viewing angle) and high G-tolerance. Over time, it evolved into a multi-role platform and became one of the most widely used combat aircraft in the world.
    • Grumman F-14 Tomcat (USA): Developed for the U.S. Navy, it was a fleet defense fighter with variable-geometry wings, a powerful radar (AWG-9) and long-range AIM-54 Phoenix missiles. He became popular with the movie “Top Gun”.
    • McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet (USA): It was developed for the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps as a multi-role aircraft capable of performing both fighter (F) and attack (A) missions. The F/A-18E/F Super Hornet is a larger, more advanced and more capable version.
    • Mikoyan MiG-29 (Soviet Union): It was a highly maneuverable front-line fighter, designed as the Soviet counterpart to the F-16. With its helmet-mounted sighting system and short-range missiles (R-73), it was a dangerous opponent in dogfighting.
    • Sukhoi Su-27 (Soviet Union): Developed as the Soviet counterpart of the F-15, it was an air superiority fighter with a large, long-range and exceptional maneuverability (such as the Pugachev Cobra maneuver). Later, many advanced variants were produced, such as the Su-30, Su-33, Su-34, Su-35.
    • Dassault Mirage 2000 (France): It was a delta-winged, fly-by-wire-controlled, multi-role fighter, a modern interpretation of the Mirage III.
    • Panavia Tornado (United Kingdom, Germany, Italy): It was a European co-production multi-role fighter with wings of variable geometry. It became especially known for its low-altitude attack (IDS) and interception (ADV) versions.
  • Comparative Assessment: This generation formed the basis of modern air warfare. While the F-15 and Su-27 represent the pinnacle in their role of pure air superiority; The F-16 and MiG-29 stood out as lighter, nimble and tactical fighters. The F/A-18 successfully brought the concept of multi-role to naval aviation. Fly-by-wire technology allowed aerodynamically unstable but more maneuverable aircraft to be designed. Aircraft of this generation still form the backbone of many air forces today, and their capabilities are being increased through constant modernizations.

• 4.5 Generation Fighter Aircraft (or 4+ & 4++ Generation) (Circa Late 1990s – Present):

  • Main characteristics: While this is not an official classification, it does refer to significantly improved versions of fourth-generation aircraft or new designs that incorporate some (though not entirely) of fifth-generation technologies. Key features include advanced radars (AESA – Active Electronically Scanned Array), reduced radar cross-sectional area (RCS – a step towards stealth), advanced avionics and sensor fusion, network-centric warfare capabilities, supercruise (supercruise – cruise at supersonic speed without the use of afterburners) capability (on some models), more powerful engines and advanced electronic warfare systems.
  • Featured Models:
    • Eurofighter Typhoon (United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Spain): It is a highly maneuverable, delta-winged and canard-based European co-production air superiority and multi-role fighter. The advanced AESA radar (CAPTOR-E) stands out for its sensor fusion and powerful engines.
    • Dassault Rafale (France): It is an “omnirole” fighter aircraft with a delta wing and canard, which is France’s own original design. It has an advanced AESA radar (RBE2 AA), an integrated electronic warfare system called SPECTRA, and is capable of carrying a wide range of weapons. It can also be used in nuclear deterrence missions.
    • Saab JAS 39 Gripen (Sweden): It is a single-engine, lightweight, multi-role fighter. It stands out with its low operational cost, high-tech avionics (AESA radar option), network-centric warfare capabilities and the ability to operate from short/scattered runways. The Gripen E/F (or Gripen NG) version has been significantly improved.
    • Boeing F-15EX Eagle II (USA): The F-15E is the most modern version of the Strike Eagle. It is equipped with advanced AESA radar, fly-by-wire system, new electronic warfare suite, increased weapon carrying capacity and open mission system architecture.
    • Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet Block III (USA): It is the latest improved version of the Super Hornet. Advanced cockpit systems offer reduced radar cross-section, conformal fuel tanks, improved network capabilities, and longer fuselage life.
    • Sukhoi Su-30SM/MKI/MKM etc. (Russia/India/Malaysia etc.): They are highly maneuverable aircraft with double-seat, multi-role, thrust vectoring engines developed on the Su-27 platform. They are usually equipped with advanced Russian or international avionics.
    • Sukhoi Su-35S (Russia): It is a deeply modernized, single-seater version of the Su-27. The advanced Irbis-E PESA radar features thrust-steering engines, advanced avionics and a reduced radar cross-sectional area (frontal angle). It is considered a bridge to fifth-generation aircraft.
    • Chengdu J-10C (China): It is China’s single-engine, delta-wing, and canard multi-role fighter. The J-10C version is equipped with AESA radar, advanced avionics and modern missiles such as the PL-15.
    • Shenyang J-11B/BG/D (China): They are licensed production of the Su-27 by China and later indigenously developed versions. The J-11D was expected to have similar capabilities to the Su-35 with AESA radar and other enhancements, but its status is unclear.
    • Shenyang J-16 (China): Considered the Chinese version of the Su-30MKK, it is a double-seat, multi-role attack and fighter with AESA radar.
  • Benchmarking: While the 4.5-generation aircraft may not reach the fifth-generation’s level of complete invisibility and sensor fusion, they offer significant capability increases over the fourth-generation. AESA radars are a game-changer with the ability to track multiple targets simultaneously, perform tasks such as electronic warfare and even communications. Aircraft such as the Su-35 and Eurofighter Typhoon are exceptionally maneuverable, thanks to their thrust steering and superior aerodynamic design. Rafale and Gripen, on the other hand, stand out with their operational flexibility and efficiency. These aircraft will remain in service for many more years due to the high costs and limited numbers of fifth-generation aircraft and will form the main striking force of many air forces.

• Fifth-generation fighter jets (circa mid-2000s – present):

  • Main characteristics: The defining feature of this generation is “very low observability”, i.e. stealth technology. This is achieved through the use of special fuselage shapes, radar-absorbing materials (RAM) and internal weapon compartments, which make it difficult for the aircraft to be detected by radar, infrared, acoustic and other sensors. Other key features include supercruise (continuous flight at speeds above Mach 1 without the use of afterburners), extreme maneuverability (in some models, thrust is supported by steering), advanced sensor fusion (data from different sensors such as radar, infrared, electronic support measures are combined to provide the pilot with integrated situational awareness), and network-centric warfare capabilities.
  • Featured Models:
    • Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor (USA): It is the world’s first operational fifth-generation fighter. It is designed as a purebred air superiority aircraft. The Stealth combines supercruising, high manoeuvrability (2D thrust-guided engines) and advanced sensor fusion (APG-77 AESA radar). Its export is prohibited by U.S. law, and its production has ceased.
    • Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II (U.S. and International Partners): It is a multi-role fighter aircraft available in three different versions (F-35A CTOL – conventional takeoff/landing, F-35B STOVL – short take-off/vertical landing, F-35C CV – aircraft carrier version). It has state-of-the-art sensors such as advanced stealth, APG-81 AESA radar, Distributed Aperture System (DAS), Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS) and a unique sensor fusion capability. It is one of the largest and most expensive military programs in the world and is favored by many allied countries. It can perform a wide range of missions, including air superiority, air-to-ground attack, electronic warfare, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR).
    • Sukhoi Su-57 (Russia): It is Russia’s first fifth-generation fighter jet. Although the stealth features are not as extensive as the F-22 and F-35, it is aimed to have a reduced radar cross-section, supercruise capability, high maneuverability (3D thrust steering engines), advanced avionics and AESA radar (N036 Byelka). It is designed as a multi-role platform. The development process is ongoing, and its mass production is progressing slowly.
    • Chengdu J-20 Mighty Dragon (China): It is China’s first operational fifth-generation fighter jet. It is designed as a long-range air superiority and attack aircraft. Stealth features are evident in its front part (delta wing, canard and concealed engine intakes). While there is controversy over its supercruise capability, it is known to be equipped with AESA radar, EOTS, and advanced avionics. Its development continues at a rapid pace and is entering the inventory in greater and greater numbers of the Chinese Air Force.
    • Shenyang FC-31/J-31 Gyrfalcon (China): It is China’s second fifth-generation fighter jet project. It is intended to have a role and configuration (twin-engine) similar to the F-35. The development process of this aircraft, which also has export potential, is ongoing, and it is thought that a version (it is expected to be called the J-35) for aircraft carriers of the Chinese Navy is being developed.
  • Comparative Assessment: Fifth-generation aircraft offer capabilities that change the paradigms of air warfare. Stealth is critical when it comes to penetrating enemy air defenses and providing first-strike advantage. Sensor fusion speeds up the pilot’s decision-making process and increases his situational awareness. The F-22 is considered unrivaled in its role of pure air superiority, while the F-35 stands out for its multi-role and network-centric warfare capabilities. The Su-57 and J-20 are important developments that challenge the U.S. monopoly in this field, but there are still question marks over their level of stealth and avionics maturity compared to their Western counterparts. The FC-31, on the other hand, has the potential to offer a more cost-effective fifth-generation alternative. The development and production costs of this generation of aircraft are quite high.

• Sixth Generation Fighter Aircraft (Concepts in Development – Circa 2030s and beyond):

  • Key Features (Expectations): Although it is still under development and its clear definitions are not fully established, the sixth generation fighter jets are expected to have the following features:
    • Advanced Stealth: More effective invisibility in wider frequency bands and from all angles.
    • Extreme Speed (Near Hypersound/Hypersound): Potential to reach speeds of Mach 5 and above.
    • Optional Manned/Unmanned Flight: The ability for unmanned flight, both piloted and autonomous or remotely controlled.
    • Artificial Intelligence (AI) Integration: Intensive use of artificial intelligence in areas such as decision making, goal recognition, task management.
    • Directed Energy Weapons (DEW): Laser or microwave-based weapon systems.
    • Advanced Network-Centric Capabilities and the “War Cloud”: Instant and uninterrupted data sharing with other platforms (manned/unmanned aircraft, satellites, land/sea elements), joint engagement capability.
    • Adaptive Cycle Engines: Engines capable of delivering optimum fuel efficiency and performance in different flight regimes (speed, altitude).
    • Advanced Cyber Warfare Capabilities:
    • Augmented Reality (AR) Supported Cockpits:
  • Known Projects:
    • Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) (U.S. Air Force): It is a program developed with a “systems system” approach, which is planned to replace the F-22 Raptor. It is expected to include a main platform and various unmanned aerial vehicles (Loyal Wingman/CCA – Collaborative Combat Aircraft) to accompany it. The level of secrecy is high.
    • F/A-XX (U.S. Navy): It is a naval program with similar concepts to the NGAD, planned to replace the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.
    • Future Combat Air System (FCAS) / Système de Combat Aérien du Futur (SCAF) (France, Germany, Spain): It is a system that will consist of a manned “Next Generation Fighter (NGF)” aircraft, “Remote Carriers – unmanned aerial vehicles of various sizes” and an “Air Combat Cloud” network, which is intended to replace the Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon.
    • Global Combat Air Programme (GCAP) (United Kingdom, Italy, Japan): Previously known as the UK’s “Tempest” project, it aims to replace the Eurofighter Typhoon and the Japanese F-2. Similarly, a manned main platform and accompanying unmanned systems will include artificial intelligence and advanced sensors.
  • Benchmarking (Concept Level): The sixth generation promises revolutionary changes in air combat. Artificial intelligence, autonomy and human-machine collaboration will be at the forefront. These systems will rely on the collective power of an integrated network, rather than the capabilities of a single aircraft. Development processes are quite complex, long-term and costly. Programs such as NGAD, FCAS, and GCAP will shape the air power balances of the future.

3. Important Warplanes: Detailed Review by Countries and Manufacturers

In this section, we will take a closer look at the most important and up-to-date models of the world’s leading fighter jet manufacturing countries.

3.1. United States of America (USA)

The U.S. has been a leader in aviation technology for many years, producing some of the most advanced and widely used combat aircraft in the world.

• Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor:

  • Role: Air superiority fighter.
  • Development: It was developed within the scope of the “Advanced Tactical Fighter” (ATF) program in order to gain superiority over the new generation fighters of the Soviets during the Cold War. It made its first flight in 1997 and entered service in 2005.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Stealth: Improved fuselage shaping providing very low radar cross-sectional area (RCS), radar-absorbing materials (RAM) and internal weapon bays. It significantly reduces the detection and tracking distance of the enemy.
    • Superwatching: Ability to fly continuously at speeds above Mach 1.5 (approx. Mach 1.8) without the use of afterburners. This allows it to perform supersonic duty for longer periods of time with less fuel.
    • Manoeuvrability: Two Pratt & Whitney F119 turbofan engines provide exceptional agility and control at high angles of attack thanks to 2D thrust steering (pitch axis) nozzles.
    • Avionics and Sensor Fusion: Northrop Grumman AN/APG-77 AESA radar, advanced electronic warfare (EW) suite (AN/ALR-94), AN/AAR-56 Missile Launch Detection System (MLD) and communication systems. By integrating data from sensors, high situational awareness is provided to the pilot.
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry 6 AIM-120 AMRAAM and 2 AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiles in the internal weapon bays. In addition, although there are external load stations under the wing, internal compartments are often used to maintain the stealth feature. It has a 20mm M61A2 Vulcan cannon. Limited air-ground capability (such as JDAM) was added later.
  • Comparison: It is considered the world’s most superior aerial dominance fighter. The Stealth is unrivaled by its combination of speed, maneuverability and sensor fusion. Unlike the F-35, it is focused on pure air superiority. The Russian Su-57 and the Chinese J-20 are being developed as competitors to the F-22, but it is debatable whether they have reached the overall capability package of the F-22. Due to its high cost and export ban, its production was limited to 187 units.

• Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II:

  • Role: Multi-role combat aircraft (air superiority, air-to-ground attack, electronic warfare, ISR).
  • Development: Under the “Joint Strike Fighter” (JSF) program, it was developed as three variants derived from a single basic design that would meet the diverse needs of the US Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps and allied countries. F-35A (Conventional Take-Off and Landing – CTOL), F-35B (Short Take-Off and Vertical Landing – STOVL) and F-35C (Aircraft Carrier Version – CV). It made its first flight in 2006 and entered service in 2015 (F-35B).
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Stealth: Although not as much as the F-22, it is versatile and has advanced stealth features. Internal weapon compartments and radar-absorbing materials are used.
    • Sensor Fusion and Network-Centered Warfare: It is one of its greatest strengths. The Northrop Grumman AN/APG-81 AESA radar, the AN/AAQ-37 Distributed Aperture System (DAS – provides 360-degree global infrared coverage around the aircraft), the AN/AAQ-40 Electro-Optical Targeting System (EOTS – internally integrated targeting pod) and the advanced electronic warfare (EW) system (AN/ASQ-239 Barracuda). The data from these sensors offers the pilot unparalleled situational awareness and information superiority through the helmet-mounted display system (HMDS). It can share data with other F-35s and friendly platforms via MADL (Multi-Function Advanced Data Link).
    • Avionics: It is described as a “flying data center”. Thanks to advanced computer systems and software, it can manage complex tasks.
    • Weapon Capacity: Depending on the variant, it can carry various ammunition in the internal compartments, such as AIM-120 AMRAAM, AIM-9X Sidewinder, JDAM, Paveway series bombs, SDB (Small Diameter Bomb). External load points are also available but reduce stealth. The F-35A has a built-in GAU-22/A 25mm cannon; The F-35B and F-35C, on the other hand, can carry an external cannon pod.
    • Variants:
      • F-35A: Standard version for the Air Force.
      • F-35B: STOVL capability for the Marine Corps and countries with short runways or amphibious assault ships. There is a lift fan system.
      • F-35C: Aircraft carrier version with larger wing area, reinforced landing gear and tailhook for the navy.
  • Comparison: The F-35 has revolutionized air warfare with its sensor fusion and network-centric capabilities. Although it is not as agile or fast as the F-22 in its air superiority role, it has the potential to be “first to see, first to shoot, first to kill” thanks to its advanced sensors and stealth feature. Its biggest advantage is its multi-role and ability to meet the needs of different forces. It has been criticized for its high cost, problems in the development process, and maintenance difficulties. However, the fact that it is preferred by a growing number of countries suggests that it will be a major player in the air power of the future. It has competitors such as the Su-57, J-20 and potentially the FC-31.

• Boeing F-15EX Eagle II:

  • Role: Multi-role combat aircraft (primarily air superiority, secondarily air-ground).
  • Development: It is the latest and most advanced version of the F-15 Eagle platform. It was developed to replace the U.S. Air Force’s aging F-15C/D fleet and complement fifth-generation aircraft such as the F-22/F-35. It is based on the F-15QA (version developed for Qatar).
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Avionics: The Raytheon AN/APG-82(V)1 AESA radar is one of the most advanced fighter radars in the world. It features a new mission computer (ADCP II), a digital fly-by-wire control system, a wide-area cockpit display (LAD), and an advanced electronic warfare suite called the Eagle Passive/Active Warning and Survival System (EPAWSS).
    • Weapon Capacity: It has an exceptional armament carrying capacity (up to 29,500 pounds). AMRAAM can carry a large number of air-to-ground munitions as well as Sidewinder missiles. Thanks to the new AMBER (Advanced Missile and Bomb Ejector Rack) missile rails, it has the potential to carry more air-to-air missiles (up to 22 units).
    • Performance: It has powerful General Electric F110-GE-129 engines. It retains the characteristics of high speed, altitude and range.
    • Structural Life: Airframe life has been increased to 20,000 flight hours.
    • Open Mission System (OMS) Architecture: It allows for faster and more cost-effective software and hardware updates.
  • Comparison: It is not a fifth-generation aircraft (it does not have stealth features), but it is an effective platform against current and future threats with its advanced sensors, EW system and enormous weapons capacity. Compared to the F-35, it has higher speed, range and weapon load. It is also characterized as a “gun truck”. With the F-22 discontinued and the F-35 unable to carry as much payload as the F-15 in some air superiority missions, the F-15EX fills an important gap for the U.S. Air Force. It can directly compete with such 35 generation aircraft as the Russian Su-16 and the Chinese J-4.5.

• Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet:

  • Role: Multi-role fighter aircraft (navy-based).
  • Development: It was developed as a larger, more capable and longer-range version of the F/A-18C/D Hornet. It replaced the US Navy’s aircraft such as the F-14 Tomcat and A-6 Intruder. The E model is single and the F model is double.
  • Key Features and Technologies (Block II/III):
    • Avionics: Raytheon AN/APG-79 AESA radar, advanced mission computers, Link 16 data link, helmet-mounted sighting system (JHMCS) and Integrated Defense Electronic Countermeasures (IDECM) system.
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry a wide range of air-to-air (AIM-120, AIM-9X), air-to-ground (JDAM, JSOW, SLAM-ER, Harpoon) and anti-radiation (AARGM) missiles and bombs.
    • Performance: It is powered by General Electric F414 engines. Compared to the Hornet, it offers a 25% larger body, more fuel capacity, and more weapon stations.
    • Block III Enhancements: Longer fuselage life (10,000 hours), some improvements for reduced radar cross-sectional area, conformal fuel tanks (CFT), improved cockpit system (Wide Field Display – LAD), more powerful mission computer (DTP-N), and Advanced Targeting Forward-facing Infrared (ATFLIR) pod. The IRST21 (Infrared Search and Tracking) system is also integrated.
  • Comparison: The backbone of the US Navy is fighter aircraft. It is a reliable, versatile, and proven platform. With its AESA radar and network-centric capabilities, it is effective against modern threats. It competes with other carrier-based fighter jets such as the Rafale M (France) and J-15 (China). The F-35C began to replace the Super Hornet, but it is planned that the Super Hornets will remain in service for many more years with the Block III modernization. The electronic warfare version called the EA-18G Growler is also very successful.

• General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon:

  • Role: Multi-role combat aircraft.
  • Development: Developed in the 1970s as part of the “Lightweight Fighter” (LWF) program as a light day fighter to complement the F-15. Over time, it has evolved into one of the world’s most successful and widely used multi-role fighter aircraft. It has kept up-to-date with continuous modernizations.
  • Key Features and Technologies (Especially the next Blocks):
    • Design: It has a single-engine, compact and aerodynamically agile design. It featured innovative features such as a fly-by-wire control system, a side-stick control lever, and a tilted pilot’s seat (for high G tolerance). The bubble canopy provides excellent visibility.
    • Avionics (Modern Versions): AN/APG-68 or more advanced AESA radars (e.g. AN/APG-83 SABR), Link 16, JHMCS, Sniper or LITENING targeting pods, advanced EW systems.
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry a wide range of air-to-air (AIM-120, AIM-9) and air-to-ground (Maverick, HARM, JDAM, Paveway) munitions. It has a built-in M61 Vulcan cannon.
    • Performance: It is known for its high maneuverability, a good thrust-to-weight ratio, and versatility.
    • Variants and Blocks: Over the years, many different versions have been produced, from Block 1 to Block 70/72. It is equipped with the latest Block 70/72 (also known as the F-16V Viper), AESA radar, new mission computer, wide-area cockpit display, and other enhancements.
  • Comparison: The F-16 has been favored by more than 25 countries around the world thanks to its cost-effectiveness, performance, and versatility. It has a proven track record of war. It competes with aircraft such as the MiG-29, Mirage 2000, JAS 39 Gripen. The F-16V modernization significantly increases the life and capabilities of the aircraft, allowing it to effectively operate alongside fifth-generation aircraft.

3.2. Russian Federation

Russia, along with the United States, is one of the most important manufacturers of combat aircraft in the world. The Sukhoi and Mikoyan (MiG) design bureaus are known for their unique and powerful fighter aircraft.

• Sukhoi Su-57 (NATO Reporting Name: Felon):

  • Role: Multi-role fifth-generation fighter jet.
  • Development: It was developed under the PAK FA (Perspektivny Aviatsionny Kompleks Frontovoy Aviatsii – Front-Line Aviation Complex of the Future) program of Russia. It is intended to be a competitor to the F-22 and F-35. It made its first flight in 2010. Its mass production and inventory are proceeding slowly.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Stealth: It is designed for reduced radar cross-sectional area (RCS) from the front angle. There are stealth applications in areas such as engine air vents and body joints. However, it is considered that it does not have as comprehensive an “all-around stealth” feature as the F-22 or F-35. Some of the weapons can be carried in internal compartments.
    • Maneuverability: It has super-maneuverability, which is the trademark of Sukhoi aircraft. Thanks to powerful engines (currently AL-41F1, in the future a new generation of engines called “Izdeliye 30” is targeted) and 3D thrust steering nozzles, it provides exceptional control at low speeds and high angles of attack.
    • Superwatching: It is intended to have the ability to cruise at supersonic speed without the use of afterburners (exactly expected with Izdeliye 30 engines).
    • Avionics: N036 Byelka AESA radar system (includes multiple radar antennas operating in different frequency bands on the nose, wing leading edges and fuselage sides), 101KS Atoll electro-optical system (IRST, UV sensors), advanced electronic warfare suite (Himalaya). Sensor fusion capability is being improved.
    • Weapon Capacity: There are two main internal weapons bays and external load points under the wing. It can carry R-77M (medium-range) and R-73/K-74M2 (short-range) air-to-air missiles, air-to-ground missiles such as the Kh-38 and Kh-59MK2, and precision-guided bombs. In the future, it is planned to integrate hypersonic missiles. It has a 30mm GSh-30-1 gun.
  • Comparison: The Su-57 is Russia’s most important step in the field of fifth-generation fighters. Manoeuvrability and potential engine performance are its greatest strengths. Questions remain about the level of stealth and avionics maturity compared to the F-22 and F-35. The development process and production are slow due to budget constraints and technical difficulties. It competes with the F-22, F-35 and the Chinese J-20.

• Sukhoi Su-35S (NATO Report Name: Flanker-E):

  • Role: Multi-role 4.5 (or 4++) generation fighter aircraft (primarily air superiority).
  • Development: It is a deeply modernized, single-seater version of the Su-27 Flanker platform. It was developed as an intermediate solution and export product until the fifth-generation Su-57 entered service. It made its first flight in 2008.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Maneuverability: The Saturn AL-41F1S is exceptionally maneuverable thanks to turbofan engines (similar to the first batch engines of the Su-57) and 3D thrust steering nozzles.
    • Avionics: Irbis-E passive electronically scanned array (PESA) radar (very long-range and wide scanning angle), OLS-35 infrared search and tracking (IRST) system, Khibiny-M electronic warfare suite, modern glass cockpit (multifunctional displays).
    • Radar Cross-Sectional Area (RCS) Reduction: With radar-absorbing materials and some design changes, its RCS from the front angle has been reduced compared to the Su-27, but it is not a stealth aircraft.
    • Weapon Capacity: Can carry up to 8,000 kg of weapons at 12 external load points. air-to-air missiles of the R-77, R-73, R-27 series; It can carry air-to-ground missiles such as Kh-31, Kh-35, Kh-59 and various bombs.
  • Comparison: The Su-35S is one of the most capable 4.5 generation fighters in the world. It is particularly notable for its maneuverability and powerful radar. The F-15EX can compete with Western 4.5-generation aircraft such as the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale, as well as some fifth-generation aircraft such as the F-35 (especially in dogfighting). It has been exported to the Russian Air Force, as well as to countries such as China and Egypt (deliveries are uncertain).

• Sukhoi Su-30SM/MKI Family (NATO Report Name: Flanker-C/H/G):

  • Role: Double-seat, multi-role fighter jet.
  • Development: It is a series of two-seat, long-range and multi-role fighters, developed from the Su-27 platform. There are many different export and local versions such as Su-30MKI (for India), Su-30MKM (for Malaysia), Su-30SM (for Russia).
  • Key Features and Technologies (Varies by Version):
    • Maneuverability: Many versions are equipped with thrust-oriented (TVC) engines and canard ailerons, which gives them high maneuverability.
    • Avionics: Hybrid systems (especially in the MKI version) that usually combine the Bars N011M PESA radar (or similar), helmet-mounted sighting system, modern cockpit displays and avionics of various countries (Russian, French, Israeli, Indian).
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry a wide range of Russian and sometimes international (for example, the BrahMos cruise missile) weapons.
  • Comparison: The Su-30 series has been an attractive platform for many air forces thanks to its double seat, long range and multi-role. India’s Su-30MKIs, in particular, stand out for their advanced avionics and thrust steering. The F-15E fulfills similar roles to aircraft such as the Strike Eagle, Eurofighter Typhoon and Rafale.

• Mikoyan MiG-35 (NATO Report Name: Fulcrum-F):

  • Role: Multi-role 4.5 (or 4++) generation fighter aircraft.
  • Development: The MiG-29 is the latest and most advanced version of the Fulcrum platform. It is derived from the MiG-29K/KUB (aircraft carrier version) and the MiG-29M/M2. It is aimed at both the Russian Air Force and the export market.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Avionics: Zhuk-A/AE AESA radar (optional), OLS-UEM electro-optical system (IRST, TV, laser), modern glass cockpit, new generation electronic warfare system.
    • Motors: RD-33MK turbofan engines (more powerful and less smoky). In some versions, a propulsion steering (TVC) option may be offered.
    • Radar Cross-Sectional Area (RCS) Reduction: Compared to the MiG-29, its RCS has been reduced.
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry modern Russian-made air-to-air and air-to-ground munitions at 9 external load points.
  • Comparison: The MiG-35 is a modernization that significantly increases the capabilities of the MiG-29. When equipped with AESA radar and advanced avionics, the F-16V can compete with aircraft such as the Gripen E/F, JF-17 Block III. However, it was overshadowed by the Su-30/35 series and did not achieve great export success. It has received a limited number of orders from the Russian Air Force.

• Mikoyan MiG-29 (NATO Reporting Name: Fulcrum):

  • Role: Front-line fighter, multi-role (later versions).
  • Development: Developed in the 1970s to counter Western light fighters such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon and the F/A-18 Hornet. Together with the Su-27, it formed the basis of Russian front-line tactical aviation.
  • Key Features and Technologies (First and Modernized Versions):
    • Design: It is a dual-engine, highly maneuverable design. It has good aerodynamic performance thanks to its large body lifting surface and wing root extensions (LERX).
    • Avionics (Early Versions): N019 Sapfir radar (limited “look-and-shoot” capability), Shchel-3UM helmet-mounted sighting system (which, in combination with the R-73 missile, offered a dangerous dogfight combination).
    • Avionics (Modernized Versions – MiG-29SMT, MiG-29UPG, etc.): Zhuk-M/ME radar (better range and tracking capability), modern glass cockpit, improved navigation and EW systems, increased fuel capacity (the “humpback” back in SMT).
    • Weapon Capacity: R-73, R-27, R-77 (in modernized versions) air-to-air missiles; various bombs and rockets.
  • Comparison: The MiG-29 was a very effective aircraft in close-range dogfights, especially in its early days, with its helmet-mounted sight and R-73 missile. However, it had problems such as limited range, inadequacy of early avionics, and engine life. It has been exported to many countries and has undergone various modernization programs. The F-16 was in competition with aircraft such as the Mirage 2000. The MiG-35 is the most advanced continuation of this line.

3.3. People’s Republic of China

In recent years, China has taken giant steps in the field of military aviation and has started to develop its own original designs. Although it has benefited greatly from Russian technologies (especially Sukhoi), it is increasingly putting forward more independent and ambitious projects.

• Chengdu J-20 Mighty Dragon (NATO Report Name: Fagin):

  • Role: Fifth-generation air superiority and attack aircraft.
  • Development: It is China’s first operational fifth-generation fighter jet. Its program was conducted in secrecy, making its first flight in 2011. It was put into service in 2017.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Stealth: It has a long, wide fuselage, delta wings, canards, and concealed engine air vents. From a preliminary point of view, it is thought that the focus is on stealth features. It is estimated that its RCS may be higher from side and rear angles. There are internal weapon compartments.
    • Engines: Russian AL-31FN engines or modified versions of domestic WS-10 Taihang engines were used in the first production batches. In the future, it is aimed to use more powerful and potentially thrust-guided domestic WS-15 Emei engines. Supercruise capability may be possible with the WS-15.
    • Avionics: The AESA radar, designated “Type 1475”, is equipped with the EOTS-86 electro-optical targeting system, the EODAS-20 distributed aperture system (similar to the F-35 DAS), an advanced electronic warfare system and a modern glass cockpit. Sensor fusion and network-centric warfare capabilities are being developed.
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry modern Chinese missiles such as the PL-15 (long-range AAM) and PL-10 (short-range, high-maneuver AAM) in the main weapons bay. There may also be space for short-range missiles in the side weapons bays. Air-ground ammunition integration is also underway.
  • Comparison: The J-20 is a symbol of China’s military modernization and technological progress. It is positioned as a competitor to the F-22 and F-35. With its long range and potential attack capabilities, it is a platform that can affect the balance of power in the Pacific region. Stealth characteristics and engine performance (especially pre-WS-15) are still a matter of debate. Its development and production continues rapidly.

• Shenyang FC-31/J-35 Gyrfalcon:

  • Role: Fifth-generation multi-role fighter jet.
  • Development: It is a project that was initiated by the Shenyang Aircraft Company as a private initiative (without state funding), which later received state support. It is intended to have a configuration similar to the F-35 (twin-engine, single-seat) and role. Export potential is also considered. It made its first flight in 2012. Improved prototypes were produced.
  • Key Features and Technologies (Estimated):
    • Stealth: It is seen that it has a stealth design similar to the F-35 (fuselage shape, internal weapon compartments).
    • Engines: Russian RD-93 engines (a derivative of the MiG-29 engines) were used in the first prototypes. It is expected that domestic WS-13 or more advanced WS-19 engines will be used in their improved versions.
    • Avionics: It is expected to include AESA radar, EOTS and a modern cockpit.
    • Variants: It is known that a naval version of the Chinese Navy, designated J-35, is being developed and tested for a new generation of aircraft carriers. This version is expected to have features such as catapult launch and catch hook.
  • Comparison: The FC-31/J-35 is China’s second fifth-generation fighter and can serve as a complement to the J-20. In particular, the naval version will significantly increase China’s aircraft carrier capabilities. As an alternative to the F-35, it may also try to find a place in the international market. Although its development has progressed more slowly than the J-20, it has gained momentum recently.

• Chengdu J-10 Vigorous Dragon (NATO Rapor Adı: Firebird):

  • Role: Single-engine, multi-role fighter jet.
  • Development: It is China’s first modern fourth-generation (or with 4.5-generation J-10C) generation fighter aircraft of its own design. There are allegations of technology transfer from Israel’s Lavi project, but China denies this. It made its first flight in 1998.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Design: It has a delta wing and canard configuration. This ensures good maneuverability.
    • Engines: Russian AL-31FN engines were used in the first versions, and domestic WS-10 Taihang engines were used in later versions (J-10B/C).
    • Avionics:
      • J-10A: PESA radar (muhtemelen Type 1473).
      • J-10B: PESA radar, redesigned engine air intake (DSI), IRST.
      • J-10C: AESA radar (Type 1475?), DSI, improved EW system, modern cockpit. It can carry modern missiles such as the PL-10 and PL-15.
  • Comparison: The J-10 is one of the backbone fighter aircraft of the Chinese Air Force (PLAAF). The J-10C version is a highly capable 4.5 generation platform with AESA radar and modern ammunition. It can be compared with such aircraft as the F-16, Gripen, Eurofighter Typhoon (the first transhs). It was exported to Pakistan as J-10CE.

• Shenyang J-16:

  • Role: Double-seat, multi-role attack and fighter aircraft.
  • Development: The Russian Su-30MKK is considered a Chinese-developed and modernized version of the Flanker-G. It is built on the J-11BS platform.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Avionics: AESA radar, modern glass cockpit, advanced EW system.
    • Motors: Domestic WS-10 Taihang engines.
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry a wide range of air-to-air (PL-10, PL-15) and air-to-ground (KD-88 anti-ship missile, precision-guided bombs) munitions.
    • J-16D: It is a special electronic warfare (EW) version. It carries EW pods on its wingtips and is designed to jam enemy radars and communications. The EA-18G has a similar role to the Growler.
  • Comparison: The J-16 is one of China’s most capable 4.5 generation attack aircraft. It fulfills similar roles with aircraft such as the F-15E Strike Eagle and Su-30SM/MKI. In particular, the J-16D version significantly increases China’s electronic warfare capabilities.

• Shenyang J-11 (NATO Report Name: Flanker-B+/L+):

  • Role: Air superiority fighter, multi-role (later versions).
  • Development: It began with the production of the Russian Su-27SK under license in China (J-11A). Later, China developed its own versions, such as the J-11B, with domestic avionics and weapons.
  • Key Features and Technologies (J-11B and later):
    • Avionics: Domestic PESA or AESA radars (the J-11D prototype was said to be AESA), integration of domestic ammunition.
    • Motors: WS-10 Taihang engines (replaced by the Russian AL-31F).
  • Comparison: The J-11 series has been an important step in China’s development of engineering and integration capabilities on Sukhoi platforms. The J-11B is a domestic version, significantly improved over the J-11A. A prototype called the J-11D, which is expected to have capabilities similar to the Su-35, has been developed, but it is unclear whether it has entered mass production. The J-15 (aircraft carrier version) is also derived from the J-11 platform.

3.4. Europe (Joint Projects and National Designs)

European countries have developed significant warplanes, both at the national level and through multinational partnerships.

• Eurofighter Typhoon (United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Spain):

  • Role: Multi-role air superiority fighter.
  • Development: It started as a joint project of four European countries (United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Spain) in order to counter the new generation fighters of the Eastern Bloc in the last stages of the Cold War. France is destined to carry out its own Rafale project. It made its first flight in 1994 and entered service in 2003.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Design: The delta wing has a canard and twin-engine (Eurojet EJ200) design. It is aerodynamically unstable and controlled by a digital fly-by-wire system, which gives it high maneuverability (especially at supersonic speeds) and agility.
    • Avionics:
      • Radar: Initially, the CAPTOR-M radar with mechanical scanning was used. With subsequent transhs and modernizations, the CAPTOR-E (Caesar) AESA radar was introduced. This radar offers a much wider scanning angle, better range, multiple target tracking and electronic warfare capabilities.
      • Sensors: PIRATE (Passive Infrared Airborne Tracking Equipment) IRST system, helmet-mounted sighting system (Striker II), advanced DASS (Defense Auxiliary Subsystem – Praetorian) electronic warfare suite.
      • Sensor Fusion: By combining data from different sensors, the pilot is provided with enhanced situational awareness.
    • Superwatching: It is noted that it has a limited supercruise capability (around Mach 1.2-1.5, depending on the weapon load).
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry a wide range of air-to-air (AIM-120 AMRAAM, Meteor, IRIS-T, ASRAAM) and air-to-ground (Paveway, Brimstone, Storm Shadow, Taurus) munitions. It has a built-in Mauser BK-27 27mm cannon.
    • Transhlar (Tranches): Different production batches (Tranche 1, 2, 3A, 4) have been produced with ever-increasing capabilities. Tranche 4 is its most modern version.
  • Comparison: Eurofighter Typhoon is one of the most capable 4.5 generation fighters in the world. It is capable of competing with aircraft such as the F-22 and Su-35 in the role of air superiority. With the integration of AESA radar and Meteor missile, air-to-air capability has increased even more. It competes with aircraft such as Rafale, Gripen E/F, F-15EX, Su-35. It has been exported to countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Spain, as well as Austria, Saudi Arabia, Oman, Kuwait and Qatar.

• Dassault Rafale (France):

  • Role: An “omnirole” fighter jet.
  • Development: It is an aircraft that France developed in the 1980s in line with its own national needs (a single platform for both the Air Force and the Navy), leaving the Eurofighter program. It made its first flight in 1986 and entered service in 2001.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Design: The delta wing has a canard and twin-engine (Snecma M88) design. It offers high maneuverability, good control at low speeds, and the ability to operate from short runways.
    • Avionics:
      • Radar: Thales RBE2 AA AESA radar (one of the first AESA radars to be used operationally in Europe).
      • Sensors: The OSF (Optronique Secteur Frontal) system (includes IRST and TV/laser) is a fully integrated and highly advanced electronic warfare and self-protection system called SPECTRA (Self-Protection Equipment and Counter-Rafale Measures). SPECTRA offers 360-degree threat detection, jamming, and spoofing capability around the aircraft.
      • Sensor Fusion: Thanks to “multi-sensor data fusion” (MSDF), data from systems such as radar, OSF, SPECTRA, IFF, Link 16 are combined, providing the pilot with superior situational awareness and tactical advantage.
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry up to 14 kg of weapons at 13 external (9,500 for Rafale M) load points. Meteor, MICA (IR and EM versions) air-to-air missiles; SCALP EG (Storm Shadow) can carry AASM Hammer series precision-guided munitions, Exocet anti-ship missile and ASMP-A nuclear cruise missile (part of the French nuclear deterrent). It has a built-in GIAT 30 30mm cannon.
    • Variants: Rafale C (single-seater for the Air Force), Rafale B (double-seater for the Air Force), Rafale M (single-seater for the Navy, reinforced landing gear and catchhook).
    • Standards: It is constantly being developed with different software and hardware standards such as F1, F2, F3, F3-R. The latest F4 standard offers even more advanced network-centric warfare, sensor, and weapons capabilities. The F5 standard is planned in the future.
  • Comparison: The Rafale is a highly capable 4.5 generation fighter jet that stands out with its “omnirole” concept. The SPECTRA EW system and sensor fusion are its greatest strengths. It is effective against both air and land/sea targets. The ability to strike a nuclear attack is also an important strategic advantage. It competes with aircraft such as Eurofighter Typhoon, Gripen E/F, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, F-15EX, Su-30/35. In addition to France, it has been exported to countries such as Egypt, Qatar, India, Greece, Croatia, Indonesia and UAE, and its export successes are increasing.

• Saab JAS 39 Gripen (Sweden):

  • Role: Single-engine, lightweight, multi-role fighter aircraft.
  • Development: It was developed by Saab in line with Sweden’s own defense needs (especially operation from scattered and short runways, low life cycle cost, high operational readiness rate). The AJ 37 replaces the Viggen. It made its first flight in 1988 and entered service in 1996.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Design: Delta wing, canard and single-engine (Volvo RM12 – a derivative of the General Electric F404; General Electric F414G) in Gripen E/F). It is designed to be lightweight, agile, and easy to maintain. The ability to operate from short and narrow runways (or even highways) is critical.
    • Avionics:
      • Gripen C/D: PS-05/A pulsed Doppler radar with mechanical scanning, modern glass cockpit, Link 16, helmet-mounted sight (Cobra), advanced EW system.
      • Gripen E/F (Gripen NG – New Generation): Leonardo Raven ES-05 AESA radar, Skyward-G IRST system, more powerful F414G engine, increased fuel capacity and weapon carrying capacity, completely new and more advanced avionics architecture, wide-field cockpit display (WAD), improved EW system. Sensor fusion and network-centric warfare capabilities have been significantly increased.
    • Weapon Capacity: air-to-air missiles such as Meteor, AMRAAM, IRIS-T, Sidewinder; Maverick, RBS-15 anti-ship missile, can carry a variety of bombs. It has a built-in Mauser BK-27 27mm cannon (on the Gripen E).
    • Operational Efficiency: It is known for its low operational cost and easy maintenance. With a small ground crew, he can be back on duty in no time.
  • Comparison: Gripen is an aircraft that stands out especially for its operational cost-effectiveness ratio and network-centric warfare philosophy. The Gripen E/F version is a very capable platform in 4.5 generation standards with AESA radar, new engine and advanced avionics. It competes with aircraft such as the F-16V, Tejas, JF-17 Block III, and in some respects larger and more expensive 4.5-generation aircraft. In addition to Sweden, it is used by the Czech Republic, Hungary, South Africa, Thailand and Brazil (Gripen E/F).

3.5. Other Important Countries and Their Projects

• Türkiye – TUSAŞ KAAN (TF-X):

  • Role: Fifth-generation air superiority and multi-role fighter aircraft (under development).
  • Development: It is Turkey’s own original fifth-generation fighter jet development project. It is carried out under the main contractor of Turkish Aerospace Industries (TAI). The aim is to develop a modern platform that will replace the F-16 fleet of the Turkish Air Force and reduce Turkey’s dependence on foreign sources in this area. It conducted its first prototype rule tests and successfully made its first flight on February 21, 2024.
  • Key Features and Technologies (Targeted):
    • Stealth: Optimized fuselage shape, internal weapon bays, radar-absorbing materials for low radar cross-sectional area.
    • Superwatching: The ability to cruise at supersonic speed without the use of afterburners.
    • Engines: General Electric F110 engines are used in the first prototypes. Work on the development of a domestic engine (TAEC) is ongoing.
    • Avionics: AESA radar (MURAD) developed by ASELSAN, integrated avionics processor, electro-optical targeting and surveillance system (such as TULGAR), advanced electronic warfare system, modern glass cockpit, helmet-mounted sight.
    • Sensor Fusion and Network-Centered Warfare: Advanced sensor fusion and networked integration with other platforms.
    • Weapon Capacity: It will be able to carry domestic and national air-to-air (GÖKDOĞAN, BOZDOĞAN) and air-to-ground (SOM, MAM series, etc.) munitions, as well as international standard munitions.
  • Comparison (Based on Project Objectives): When KAAN is completed, it will make Turkey one of the few countries capable of producing fifth-generation fighter jets. It is intended to be in a similar league with aircraft such as F-35, Su-57, J-20 with its targeted features. The project schedule and the development of domestic subsystems (especially the engine) are critical.

• Japan – Mitsubishi F-2:

  • Role: Multi-role combat aircraft (especially anti-ship and air defense).
  • Development: Based on the US General Dynamics F-16C/D Block 40, it was developed jointly by Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) and Lockheed Martin according to the needs of Japan. It replaced the F-1 fighter-bomber.
  • Key Features & Technologies:
    • Design: 25% larger wing area than the F-16 (made of composite material), longer fuselage, larger horizontal and vertical tails, braking parachute.
    • Avionics: Japanese-made J/APG-1 or J/APG-2 AESA radar (one of the world’s first operational AESA radars), integrated electronic warfare system, modern cockpit.
    • Weapon Capacity: It can carry Japanese-made ASM-1, ASM-2 anti-ship missiles, AAM-3, AAM-4, AAM-5 air-to-air missiles, JDAM and other bombs.
  • Comparison: The F-2 is a platform that adapts the capabilities of the F-16 to Japan’s specific maritime defense needs. It is equipped with AESA radar and anti-ship missiles, making it particularly effective against naval targets. It has been criticized for its high cost of production. Japan is developing a sixth-generation fighter jet together with the United Kingdom and Italy under the GCAP (Global Combat Air Program), which will replace the F-2.

• South Korea – KAI KF-21 Boramae:

  • Role: 4.5 generation multi-role fighter aircraft (under development, potential to evolve into 5th generation in the future).
  • Development: It is a fighter jet development project carried out by South Korea in partnership with Indonesia (Indonesia’s participation has been uncertain). Korea Aerospace Industries (KAI) is the prime contractor. The goal is to replace the aging F-4 and F-5 fleet and develop the domestic defense industry. It made its first flight in 2022. The testing and development process is ongoing.
  • Key Features and Technologies (Targeted):
    • Design: It is a twin-engine design with a similar exterior appearance to the F-22 and F-35. In the Block I version, weapons will be carried externally, while in Block II, stealth features will be increased by adding internal weapon compartments.
    • Motors: General Electric F414 engines (also used in the Super Hornet and Gripen E/F).
    • Avionics: AESA radar, IRST, integrated electronic warfare suite, modern glass cockpit developed by Hanwha Systems.
    • Weapon Capacity: The Meteor will be able to carry European missiles such as IRIS-T, as well as domestic and US-made munitions.
  • Comparison (Based on Project Objectives): KF-21 Boramae is an important technological step for South Korea. The Block I version will enter service as a 4.5 generation aircraft, with Block II and later developments aimed at approaching fifth-generation capabilities (especially stealth). It is intended to be a platform that can compete with aircraft such as Rafale, Eurofighter Typhoon, F-16V.

4. Comparative Analysis: Capabilities, Doctrines, and Technological Differences

Comparing fighter jets is a complex process that requires taking into account many different factors. Generations, roles, technological equipment and operational doctrines are decisive in these comparisons.

• Air Superiority Focused vs. Multi-Role Aircraft:

  • Air Superiority Aircraft (Ex: F-22 Raptor, Su-27/35): Their main goal is to establish dominance in the airspace by neutralizing enemy air elements (fighters, bombers). They are usually equipped with high maneuverability, powerful engines, superior radar and long-range air-to-air missiles. Air-to-ground capabilities may be limited or secondary. The F-22 represents the pinnacle of this category.
  • Multi-role aircraft (e.g. F-35 Lightning II, Dassault Rafale, F-16 Fighting Falcon, Su-30SM): They are designed to be able to effectively perform both air-to-air and air-to-ground tasks. They can carry a wide range of weapons and sensors. Most modern air forces prefer multi-role platforms due to cost-effectiveness and operational flexibility. The F-35, the “omnirole” Rafale and the common F-16 are successful examples of this approach.
  • Comparison: Thoroughbred air superiority aircraft generally offer top performance in a specific role (air-to-air combat), while multi-role aircraft provide a good balance in a wider range of missions. The needs and budgets of the air force determine which type of aircraft they will focus on. Today, even fifth-generation aircraft (such as the F-35) are dominated by multi-role.

• Stealth Technology Comparison:

  • Fifth-generation aircraft (F-22, F-35, Su-57, J-20): Stealth is the main distinguishing feature of this generation.
    • F-22 and F-35: They are considered to have the most advanced and “all-aspect” stealth features. Many elements, such as body shaping, radar-absorbing materials (RAM), internal weapon compartments, the design of engine air vents and exhaust nozzles, make them difficult to detect by radar, infrared and other sensors. The RCS of the F-22, especially from the frontal angle, is claimed to be the size of a marble.
    • Su-57 and J-20: Although they have stealth characteristics, Western experts generally assess that they do not provide as extensive invisibility as the F-22 and F-35, they may have higher RCS values, especially from side and rear angles. China and Russia are constantly improving their technologies in this area. Some of the Su-57’s external weapon carrying points and the J-20’s canards are seen as factors that may affect stealth performance to some extent.
  • 4.5 Generation Aircraft (Rafale, Typhoon, Su-35, F/A-18E/F Block III, Gripen E/F): They do not have complete stealth, but they do use some design features and materials to reduce their radar cross-sectional area (RCS). For example, the use of partial RAM in the Rafale, S-shaped air intakes; Some body modifications to the Super Hornet Block III; Radar-absorbing coatings on the Su-35. These measures may reduce the detection distance somewhat, but do not provide fifth-generation-level invisibility.
  • Comparison: True stealth gives you a game-changing edge in air combat (“first to see, first to hit”). However, this technology is very costly and difficult to maintain. 4.5 generation aircraft, on the other hand, try to counter stealth aircraft with advanced sensors and electronic warfare systems or to maintain their effectiveness in non-stealth environments. As stealth technology develops, so do countertechnologies for detecting it (e.g., low-frequency radars, passive sensor networks).

• Avionics and Sensor Fusion:

  • AESA Radars: It has become the standard equipment of modern combat aircraft (4.5 and 5th generation). They offer advantages over mechanically scanned radars, such as much faster scanning, tracking multiple targets at once, higher resolution, better electronic countermeasure (ECCM) capability, and even the ability to perform secondary tasks such as electronic attack/communication. The AN/APG-81 of the F-35, the AN/APG-77 of the F-22, the RBE2 AA of the Rafale, the CAPTOR-E of the Typhoon, the Raven ES-05 of the Gripen E/F, the N036 Byelka of the Su-57, and the Type 1475 of the J-20 are important examples in this field.
  • IRST (Infrared Search and Tracking) Systems: As an alternative or complement to radar, it serves to passively detect the heat emitted by targets. It can provide a significant advantage in stealth aircraft or radar jamming environments. The Eurofighter’s PIRATE, the Rafale’s OSF, the Su-57’s 101KS Atoll, the Gripen E/F’s Skyward-G, and the F-35’s DAS/EOTS offer advanced IRST capabilities.
  • Electronic Warfare (EW) Suites: It allows the aircraft to be protected from enemy radars and missiles, to confuse or deceive enemy sensors. Modern EW systems (for example, the AN/ASQ-239 Barracuda of the F-35, the SPECTRA of the Rafale, the Praetorian of the Typhoon) are very advanced and integrated. Some aircraft (EA-18G Growler, J-16D) are designed for special EW missions.
  • Sensor Fusion: It is the combination of information from different sensors (radar, IRST, EW, data links, etc.) to provide the pilot with a single integrated and understandable tactical picture. This significantly increases the pilot’s situational awareness and speed of decision-making. The F-35 is considered one of the most advanced aircraft in this field. 4.5 generation aircraft such as Rafale, Typhoon, Gripen E/F also have advanced sensor fusion capabilities.
  • Comparison: Avionics superiority is just as important in modern air combat as maneuverability or speed. An aircraft with better sensors and more effective sensor fusion can detect and engage its opponent earlier. AESA radars and advanced EW systems have become critical to an aircraft’s survivability and mission effectiveness.

• Weapon Carrying Capacities and Types:

  • Air-to-Air Missiles:
    • Short Range (WVR – In-Line of Sight): AIM-9X Sidewinder (USA), ASRAAM (UK), IRIS-T (Europe), R-73/74 (Russia), PL-10 (China), Python 5 (Israel), MICA IR (France). They are usually highly maneuverable and infrared-guided. They can work integrated with helmet-mounted sights.
    • Medium/Long Range (BVR): AIM-120 AMRAAM (USA), Meteor (Europe), R-77 (Russia), PL-12/PL-15 (China), MICA EM (France), Derby (Israel). They are usually active radar-guided. The Meteor stands out for its ability to maintain high speed, especially at long ranges, thanks to its ramjet engine. The PL-15 is claimed to have a very long range.
  • Air-to-Ground Munitions: JDAM, Paveway (laser-guided bombs), SDB (Small Diameter Bomb), JSOW (USA); AASM Hammer (France); Brimstone, Storm Shadow (UK/Europe); Taurus KEPD 350 (Germany/Sweden); Kh-29/31/38/59 (Russia); KD-88, YJ series (China); SOM, MAM series (Turkey). These munitions are selected according to the type of target and the mission profile. Precision guidance reduces collateral damage and increases effectiveness.
  • Weapon Load Quantity: Aircraft such as the F-15EX (about 13.4 tons), Su-30/34 (about 8-12 tons), Rafale/Typhoon (about 9-9.5 tons) can carry a large amount of weapons. Stealth aircraft such as the F-35 (about 8-9 tons in total internal and external) and the F-22 (limited in internal compartments, but can also carry externally) primarily use internal weapons bays to maintain invisibility.
  • Comparison: An aircraft’s weapon capacity and the variety of ammunition it can carry directly affect its multi-role and mission effectiveness. A new generation of BVR missiles, such as the Meteor, provides a significant advantage in air-to-air combat. Precision-guided air-to-ground munitions, on the other hand, have become indispensable in modern conflicts. The internal weapons bays of stealth aircraft limit the number of ammunition, but this is offset by the advantage that invisibility brings.

• Manoeuvrability and Performance (Speed, Range, Altitude):

  • Maneuverability: It is especially important in dogfights. The aerodynamic design of the aircraft depends on factors such as engine power, thrust-to-weight ratio, and the fly-by-wire system. Aircraft such as the Su-27/35/57 (thrust-steering), F-22 (propulsion-steering), Eurofighter Typhoon, Rafale, F-16 are known for their high maneuverability. Although post-stall maneuvers such as the Pugachev Cobra are a demonstration element, especially of Russian aircraft, their combat effectiveness is controversial.
  • Speed: Supersonic speed (above Mach 1) is standard. Supercruise (supersonic flight without afterburner) is found on aircraft such as the F-22, Su-57 (targeted), Gripen E/F (limited), Typhoon (limited) and provides fuel savings and longer supersonic engagement. Top speeds are usually around Mach 2 (interceptors such as the MiG-25/31 can reach Mach 2.8-3.2).
  • Range: It depends on the aircraft’s fuel capacity, engine efficiency, flight profile, and whether it carries external fuel tanks. Long range is important for strategic missions and air patrols. Large aircraft such as F-15, Su-27/30/34/35/57, J-20 generally have a longer range. The ability to refuel in the air significantly increases the range.
  • Service Ceiling (Maximum Altitude): Most modern fighters can reach altitudes of 50,000 to 60,000 feet (about 15 to 18 km). Some, such as the F-22 and MiG-31, can climb higher. High altitude can provide better sensor vision and missile kinematics.
  • Comparison: In the past, maneuverability was one of the most important elements of air warfare, but with modern BVR missiles and sensor technologies, its importance has decreased somewhat. But it can still be critical in tactical situations and WVR engagements. Speed and altitude affect the envelope of engagement and the chances of survival. Range, on the other hand, determines operational flexibility.

• Operational Costs and Ease of Maintenance:

  • Life Cycle Cost: Not only the purchase cost of an aircraft is important, but also the cost per flight hour, maintenance requirements, spare parts and personnel expenses.
  • Stealth Aircraft: They usually have higher maintenance costs (sensitivity of radar-absorbing coatings, etc.). The costs per flight hour of the F-35 and F-22 are quite high.
  • Single-Engine Light Fighters (Gripen, F-16): They generally have lower operational costs than twin-engine and larger aircraft. Gripen is specifically designed with the philosophy of low cost and easy maintenance.
  • Ease of Maintenance: Factors such as modularity, the effectiveness of diagnostic systems and the time required by the ground crew are important in the design of the aircraft.
  • Comparison: Operational costs directly affect the air force’s fleet size, flight hours, and overall combat readiness. Many countries are turning to more cost-effective platforms due to budget constraints. Although advanced avionics and software simplify maintenance processes, the complexity of the systems also brings new challenges.

5. Conclusion: Future Trends in Fighter Aircraft Technologies

Fighter aircraft technology is in a constant state of evolution. The following trends are expected to come to the fore in the future:

• Sixth Generation Systems: Programs such as NGAD, FCAS, GCAP will shape the air dominance concepts of the future. Rather than a single platform, these systems will adopt AI-supported, network-centric “System of Systems” approaches in which manned and unmanned elements (CCA – Collaborative Combat Aircraft / Loyal Wingman) work together.
• Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Autonomy: AI will increasingly be used to speed up decision-making processes, reduce pilot load, perform autonomous tasks, and analyze complex data. Optional manned flight platforms (which can fly without a pilot, but can also be used with a pilot when necessary) may become widespread.
• Advanced Stealth and Counter-Stealth Technologies: Stealth technology will be further developed to make it more effective in wider frequency bands and in all aspects, as well as new sensor technologies (quantum radars, advanced passive detection systems, biometric sensors) and tactics to counter it.
• Hypersound Technologies: Both hypersonic missiles and aircraft capable of potentially flying at hypersonic speeds will shorten engagement times and strain defense systems.
• Directed Energy Weapons (DEW): Laser and microwave-based weapons can be used to destroy missiles, blind sensors, or disable electronic systems.
• Network-Centric Warfare and the “War Cloud”: A “war cloud” concept will develop, in which all military elements (air, land, sea, space, cyber) instantly and securely share data, create a common operational picture and engage in coordinated engagements.
• Adaptive Cycle Engines: It will offer optimal performance and fuel efficiency in different flight regimes, increasing range and endurance.
• Digital Engineering and Open System Architectures: The design, manufacture, and modernization of aircraft will become faster and more cost-effective using digital tools and modular, open-system architectures. This will allow new technologies and capabilities to be integrated more easily.
• Cyber Warfare Capabilities: The protection of fighter aircraft and support systems against cyberattacks, as well as the ability to conduct cyberattacks on enemy systems, will become increasingly important.

As a result, fighter jets will continue to be platforms that push the boundaries of technology. The air wars of the future will be the scene of the struggle of more connected, more autonomous, faster and more invisible systems. Developments in this area will continue to deeply affect not only military balances, but also international relations and technological innovation. National initiatives, such as Turkey’s KAAN project, are important indicators of its efforts to take part in this technological race and increase strategic independence.